Urban Policy and Planning: Theoritical Observation

Policy and policy making proccess

Discussing about urban policy from it’s origin until the implementation let us try to see policy in our city, Denpasar City, which faces many new challenges time over time. The challenges that we face today in context of Denpasar is how to manage the growth of the city, because unmanaged growth can caused many new problems, including increase of unemployment rate, sporadic development, environmental degradation, land conversion from agriculture land to built up area, sprawl and slums[1]. A decision should be made to tackle all urban challenges for a better future life. Jan Pronk[2] in the first series of speeches in Urban Meeting said that every decision is a policy. Thus to make decisions, all stakeholders, and mostly key actors, must involved in the policy making process, which is very rare in our city. Substantial benefits should be obtained through building transparent, accountable and participatory decision making processes[3]

We need a good policy to arrange our city to become a better place to living in. There is no blueprint what a good policy is and how to make it. We should find on our own way to make a good urban policy, but we can learn from the experience of other cities. It is necessary if we start from the context of urban policy itself and the city. Fainstein and Campbell (2002) describe three ways of how context circumscribes policy: (1) defines priority; (2) broad cultural and ideological currents constraints the alternatives that policy makers can consider; and (3) short of fundamental restructuring of the whole economic and social system. They put defines priority as the first, because it is important to knowing our problems and to make a priority, since we cannot solve whole problems in a night. In context of Denpasar, defining priorities is about how we learn from the past, assessing the present time and how to make a good planning for the future, we can make a priorities if we understand our past, define the problem that we face today, and the important thing that should be done in the future.

Some Criteria of a Good Policy

A good policy should be well conceptualized with a clear goals, objectives and strategies. We use the strategies as a mechanism to implement such a policy, which could include laws, budgetary allocations, special funding channels, reorganisation of functions within government. A good policy also should be well structured and implement able which means that it should be easy to understand, has a clear budget, time bound, and mentioned the task of each actor to support the success of the policy. The success of policy can reflect in the wide support from stakeholders, inhabitants, business, bureaucrat, politicians, etc. and it is also important to have a clear area concerned.

From Statutory to Performance Based

Toward an Effective and Efficient Urban and Regional Planning

Planning as a general activity is the making of an orderly sequence of action that will lead to the achievement of a stated goal or goals (Hall, 2002:3). Move on from this understanding, we can consider that the achievement of a stated goal is the objective and the orderly sequence of action as the process. A research of how is the best and effective way to formulate the goal and creates or makes an effective mechanism to achieve the goals should be made. The research can starts by discussing the planning process and its background, effectiveness and lessons learnt from the past planning.

The process and hierarchy of regional planning in Indonesia still top-down, central government creates a guidelines and local government work within this guidelines, nevertheless local government can develop on local context base on Undang-undang 22/1999 about Local Government which describes responsibilities of central, provincial and local government[4]. The opportunities to develop and creates based on local context is rare because local government will run the risk of their development, then working in a safe corridor is become the common thing. The planning which is based in law makes local government has a strong base in law, but this planning is not flexible to challenge the alteration. Statutory planning has strengths and weaknesses, among of the strengths is that it protections of critical elements can be reinforced by law and by runs statutory planning, there is normally trained manpower who are used to implementing the system. The most weak points is bureaucratic routines make it runs slow and ineffective and even the plans easily outdated, irrelevant with current context and ignored or bypassed[5]. If the planning has been outdated and ignored, then what is it for? It becomes useless. The new paradigm of planning process is based on target or result oriented planning. Davidson (1996) mentioned it as performance oriented planning which is discuss two kind of planning; action planning and strategic planning. Action planning in Davidson’s term is:

The participative process of development of a relatively short term plan to use available resources to meet limited objectives, normally in a defined area.

From this understanding there are some notes: clear and limited objective and defined area make it looks easy to implement but the participatory process can make it a little bit complicated. If we can’t manage the participatory process, then it will consume energy and time. To support and make an effective participatory process, urban land institute released 10 principles of successful public and private partnerships[6] toward a better development planning which can be used as a guide which stressed on how to make a good shared vision and working together to gain rewards and managed risks for all parties. In the case of performance oriented planning, local government should be more proactive and take leads in the participatory process, not just wait and see what comes from the central government. Implementing strategic planning, local government should be focus and have a wide support from key stakeholders, and to have a good law background, it should be in line with statutory planning, if possible. Action planning can be part of strategic planning, by make the clear objective, short term plan in well defined planning area.

Brussels which is populated by two main language population works with their inner energies. Development of the city starts by manages the growth of the urbanisation with the service of provincial road inspection. The transportation management become key factor of the succsess of the city development. The success of transportation system, road design, railways, tramway, increase mobility for national economic development, managed rural depopulation, concentrate employee in rural area. These entire things affiliate and create fusion between infrastructure and architecture. As Brussels become an international crossroads, the transportation planning becomes key of physical factor in regional planning. In local scale, the emerging of local power leads to the ultimate district’s land use plan. Participatory plays important role in Brussels city development.

Endnotes

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[1] In addressing urban problems and how to make priorities, Jay W. Forrester have a good explanation about how to structuring urban area with it’s problem until how to link all urban elements in term of urban interactions in his book, Urban Dynamics.

2 Jan Pronk (Former Minister and Special Representative of the United Nations) spokes in the first’s series of urban meetings conducted by IHS together in collaboration with Architects Institute of Rotterdam (AIR) discussed the theme of the urban meetings “Are Cities More Important Han Countries?”

[3] Pennink, C., R. Dauskardt, F. Davidson, (2001) concluded that transparency, accountability and participatory in decision making is parts of good governance, especially in the policy making processes.

[4] Kota-Kota Dalam Transisi : Tinjauan Sektor Perkotaan Pada Era Desentralisasi Di Indonesia June 30, 2003 Dissemination Paper No. 7 Urban Sector Development Unit Infrastructure Department East Asia and Pacific Region The World Bank, addressed the implication of decentralisation and observed activities in urban field toward a framework’s formulation for sustainable development of cities in Indonesia.

[5] Davidson, Forbes (1996) Planning for Performance, Habitat International Vol. 20 No. 3 pp 445-462, Elsevier UK.

[6] Ten principles of Successful public-Private Partnerships is one of the series of Ten principles released by the Urban Land Institute which initiates research that anticipates emerging land use trends and issues, proposing creative solutions based on that research.

List of references

Davidson, Forbes (1996) Planning for Performance, Habitat International Vol. 20 No. 3, Elsevier UK.

Fainstein, S.C., Scott (2002). Introduction: Theories of Urban Development and their implication for policy and planning. Readings in Urban Theory. SC. Fainstein, Scott, Blackwell.

Forrester, Jay W., (1999) Urban Dynamics. Pegassus Communication MA, United States of America

Hall, P. (2002). Planning, planners and plans. Urban and Regional Planning. Oxford, Blackwell. United Kingdom.

Pennink, C., R. Dauskardt, F. Davidson. (2001). Urban Policies and strategies in a Global Context: Key Issues, Elements and lessons. National Seminar on Urban/Municipal Capacity Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, IHS Rotterdam.

ULI–the Urban Land Institute (2005) Ten Principles of successes Public Private Partnerships West Washington, D.C. United States of America

Urban Sector Development Unit Infrastructure Department East Asia and Pacific Region (2003) Kota-Kota Dalam Transisi : Tinjauan Sektor Perkotaan Pada Era Desentralisasi di Indonesia, East Asia Urban Working Paper SeriesThe World Bank

Useful websites which discusses about urban policy and planning and has good links

http://www.uli.org/ ULI initiates research that anticipates emerging land use trends and issues, proposing creative solutions based on that research

http://www.communityplanning.net/principles/ This website provides an overview of new methods of community planning contains principles, methods, scenarios, case studies of community planning.

http://www.toolkitparticipation.com/

DENPASAR DEVELOPMENT IN AN GLOBALISING WORLD

BRIEF INTRODUCTION

Denpasar city is the capital city of Bali Povince, geographically located between 08°35’31” – 08°44’49” LS and 115°10’23” – 115°16’27” BT.

The Population of Denpasar in 2006 is around 583.600 person, occupy 128 km2 of land, population growth rate2002-2006 is 3.01%, density 4,567/km2. Denpasar divided into 4 district which are North Denpasar, East Denpasar, South Denpasar and West Denpasar. Main activities that generate economic of Denpasar is tourism and services, which is much influenced by it’s neigborhood, famous tourist destination Kuta Beach. Tourism in Denpasar itself generates by two main destination area which is Sanur Beach in the Eastern part of Denpasar and Bali Museum and The Bali’s Art Center in the centre of Denpasar City. The position as capital of Bali province, it’s function as tourists destination, and it’s location that are close to Kuta Beach, attract many people to come to Denpasar. Living cost in Denpasar are lower compares to Kuta, attracts many people who works in Kuta to live in Denpasar.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Short History of Denpasar: Economic Perspectives

The main economic activities, in 2006, is trading and tourism which is 38,42 %, while the second economic activities is services (26,84%) followed by industry 12,86 %. The agicultural field is only 2,32 %. As Bali is one of the most popular tourist destination in Indonesia and for few years awarded as the world best island by The International Travel Magazine, the development of tourist accomodation is growing fast, attracts investor from all around the world. Most favourite investment is tourist accomodation which mostly built in Nusa Dua and Kuta near Denpasar and Sanur Beach in Denpasar, while the worker live in Denpasar where the living cost more affordable.

Trading activities experienced a rapid increase since 1998 when many people from Jakarta move to Bali during the succsession of the Soeharto era. Since then, the physical development increase rapidly because many migrant move to Bali from Jakarta and invest their capital in Bali.

The Bali bombing in 2002 and 2005, makes the Bali economics in general colapse including Denpasar. The amount of unemplyment worker increase and informal sector become alternative working field. The growth rate of GDP after bombing was decrease to 5.03% in 2002. In 2006 the tourism sector were rebuilt and many investor from all over the world bring their investment to Bali. Tourist accomodation, ie. villas, apartments, bungalows once again become the most favourite investment. The worker and labour from Java and Lombok come and increases city’s density. The growth rate of GDP in 2006 is incrase and reach 5,88%. Average growth rate of GDP in Denpasar at constant 2000 prices from 2002-2006 is 5,62% while in province scale the average growth rate is 3,83%. This indication shows that many capital and resources are concentrated in Denpasar.

Denpasar in the Knowledge of Economy

Berg, L. van den et al (2004) assume seven foundations and activities of a knowledge city. These sevens points can enhance performance and attractiveness of the city succesful in the knowledge economy; knowledge base, economic base, quality of life, accesibility, urban diversity, urban scale and social equity.

As Bali is one of the main tourist destination and attract many people, there are many polythecnics specialized in tourism establish in Denpasar. The labour market in tourism is still become one of the most potential market. In education fields, now in Denpasar, also many education institution make diversification, establish ICT training attract young people from all around Bali to come to Denpasar. The bachelor degree in agriculture is for free to enhance agriculture field, which has been left behind after the succsess of tourism business. The knowledge base are built to support all economic activities in Denpasar and generally Bali Province.

To reduce the dependance on tourism, Denpasar authurity decided to do diversivication in the economic base. Denpasar rethinking to strenghtened community based economic in agriculture, small and medium sizes home industry by built internet-based marketing and built gives loan without collateral. The challenges is, mostly, people in agricultural and home industry field doesn’t familiar with computer and internet, so far the program doesn’t work well. Now the economic base has an alternative, not only depends on tourism. In 2006 there are 219 small enterprise with 1.623 labour and 47 medium and large enterprise with 2.846 labour, while in 2002 only 24 small enterprises with 199 labour and 5 medium and large enterprises with only 220 labour.

There are two kind of accesibilities in Denpasar, external accesibilities and interal accesibilities. International airport, Ngurah Rai International Airport, and harbour are located near Denpasar in a relatively close distance, only 20 minutes to the city center. The presence of airport is very important to support tourism, while the presence of harbour is important to send goods that are produced by home industry. These external accesibility, airport and harbour, is good and internationally known, but not the internal accesibility.Public transport in Denpasar only depends on minibuses that are not reach all area of the city, and the relatively uncomfort with no schedule. Dependants on private vehicle is very high, mostly motorcycles. Pedestrian ways are not accesible by disable and elderly people, it’s too narrow and the material quality is relatively poor. The public transport is not a good choice if we want to go travelling around Denpasar. The crowded public transportation also brings air pollution to the city’s spaces.

The presents of some public parks in Denpasar, makes the inhabitants has more choices to spend their leisure time, and makes a better quality of life. There are two main public park, Puputan Badung Park and Puputan Margarana Park, and a beautiful Sanur Beach. The houses are built in traditional Balinese architecture with a fairly good, but slums are also exist in a relatively small number (3,03%). The parks in Denpasar also absorb smog, that produces by motorized vehicles, and make the air clean.

Denpasar’s inhabitant comes from all around Indonesia and, in very small numbers, expatriat from foreign country. All of them has different culture, but Balinese culture are dominant. These urban diversity makes city looks more colourfull. We can see traditional neigborhood in the northern part of Denpasar, while the modern mixed neigborhood in the western part of Denpasar. Sanur Beach in the eastern become a international neighborhood, where expatriats live. There are 421 expatriat who live in Denpasar, in the year 2006.

Relative small city like Denpasar, needs to build strong network in a globalising world. The competition amongs tourism cities are very tight, and force city manager to aware to this condition. To see Denpasar in the global maps is almost imposible, but this small urban scale can be seen if the network that were built is strong. Without seeing the maps, people know Bali and Denpasar in the tourism network. Bali Tourism Board has a hardworking task doing this job.

Reducing poverty and inequality can stimulates economic growth by inceasing safety and by enhancing the purchasing power, which will strengthen the demand side of economy (Hall and Pfeiffer, 2000 in Berg, L. van den et al, 2004). Tourism industry in Denpasar attract also nonskilled worker in construction sector. After the construction project has finished, then they loose their job and become unemployment. There are no social equity for those who mostly work illegally. These condition increases poverty and inequality in Denpasar because there’s no insurance or social equity exist.

URBAN POVERTY AND INFORMALITY

Poverty and Slums

Urban slums appears along the Badung River, where many poor people live in these area legally and illigelally. Slums area also appears squaterly in some area in four Denpasar’s districts. Based on the study conducted by PT. Narada Karya in 2007, population of poor people in Denpasar is 17.468 persons in 4.159 households. Characteristic of urban poverty in Denpasar can be seen from some physical factor such as location, building material, accses to services, ie. drinking water, sanitation, electricity, etc.

The poor is came from another province and usually occupy area near waterbodies, sometimes in illegal land status. In Denpasar, mostly, the status of the land is rented from local owner. Basic social services is poor. They use non permanent building material for their houses, basic services and facilities are minimum even their use illegal electricity power, makes their own well to obtain clean water, the area is unreachable by public transport, and they throw away the trash directly to Tukad Badung River, makes the environment getting worst time over time.

Illiteracy rate in Denpasar, based on Denpasar in Figures 2007, is 4.63% and mostly elderly people while illiteracy in labour force is almost zero. Unemplyent is around 6.06% from the poppulation. These two indicator, illiteracy and unemplyment, doesn’t has a direct link, because the illiteracy occurs among elderly, while the unemployment has a direct link to job opportunities. The informal sector in denpasar brings more job opportunities, and the inhabitants of Denpasar happy with these conditions. It is easy to find foods in affordable prices along the streets in Denpasar. Many street vendors offer cheap food and they open along the night until 04.00 in the morning.

Should it Become Formalised? Informal Sector

There are three kind of informal economic sector in Denpasar, day informal sector, night informal sector and very rare, morning informal sector. Common informal sector in Denpasar during daytime is door to door food trader, in the night many semi permanent café appears along the main street, selling food in a very various item, from sea food, chinese food, indonesian food, etc. In the morning, door to door raw food material trader go around neigborhood by bike or motorbike.

Friedmann in Iain Begg 1999 said that informal work, as it is called, is “a highly vulnerable activity; nevertheless it is of crucial importance….In countries where neither unemployment insurance nor social security exist, and where the formal economy is quite unable to productively absorb the growing increments of urban labor resulting from natural increase and migration, informal work is one of the principal sources of income for the poor”.

Informal activities in Denpasar increase rapidly since there are many workers lost their job after Bali Bombing 2002 and 2005. Informal sector also occurs by the high grade of migration, where the migrant doesn’t has enough skill to fulfill the limited formal job opportunities. The rapid development after Bali bombing, to recover economic conditions, also attract more people to come, increase the migration rate, but the working fields is limited to all of those migrant. Informal sector in food trading become major economic activities and the big new economic challenges. Street vendors in the night is the most favourite sector, after formal restaurant and café closed time. Other favourite informal sector is door to door ready and fast food trader. The commodity are, meatball, fried noddles, fried rice, bakmie, etc. Beside food and goods trader, in informal sector field also there are barber shop, motorbike repairer, handphone shop and computer repairer, and other services field. Garbage collection also amongs the favourite informal sector, mostly at the dumpsite area. Garbage collector riding their bike also come door to door to collect hosehold’s unusable goods.

Since informal sector activities are largely ignore, rarely supported, often regulated, and sometimes actively discouraged by the government (ILO definition on informal sector in Dijk, 1996), informal sector nowadays, in Denpasar, has their own organisation and were built by community initiative. The biggest informal sector organisation in Bali is Koperasi Krama Bali (Bali’s People Cooperation) which members comes from all around Bali Province. The organisation give credit, facilities, workshop, training, and also create network amongs raw material producer into final trader. Informal sector become “formalised” not by government but private sector and by the informal worker itself.

SUSTAINABILITY AND HEALTH

The term ‘sustainable development’ has become widely used to stress the need for the simultaneous achievement of development and environmental goals (Mitlin and Satterthwaite, 2001). The issue of sustainability often linked with the disharmonius of nature, the pollution, natural resources degradation and most of the issue does not mention the city as a part of disscusion. Mitlin and Satterthwaite, 2001 clarify that it is not cities that are responsible for most resource use, waste, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions, but particular industries and commercial and industrial enterprises (or corporations) and middle and upper income groups with high consumpstions lifestyles.

Poor public transport management in Denpasar, forced people to own their own transportation vehicles which most of all vehicle are motorized and use fossil fuell. The amount of motorized vehicle in Denpasar in 2006 is 438.266 vehicle, it means more than 75% of the poppulation own a motorized vehicles. The lack of public transport brings traffic crowded and jam during the rush hour in the morning and afternoon. Traffic jam makes travel time to and from work longer and increase driving time and results in an increase in air pollution and in the incidence of respiratory diseases (Jackson and Kochtitzky, 2002). Large amount of private vehicle produce more smog that caused many bad effects on human health.Other bad influence of crowded motorized vehicles is it’s noise, and increase the risk of traffic accident, brings the road become a dangerous places.

Home-scale industries along Tukad Badung river doesn’t have liquid waste treatment plant. Their throw out all of their liquid directly to Tukad Badung river creates chronical water pollution. At the end, water pollution also can infect the soil, because the water from Tukad Badung river also uses as irrigation water sources.

Lack of air quality, water pollution, poor sanitation and drainage system in Denpasar increase the potency of urban disease. Denpasar municipality Healthy Office reported some potential diseases become an epidemic in this city. Three most potential diseases become an epidemic are: (1) Diarrhea, (2) dengue fever, and (3)Pneumonia. Diarrhea is linked to bad sanitation system and lack quality of drinking water. Dengue fever linked to bad waste management, and lack of environmental awareness. Pneumonia linked to bad air pollution and smog.

ROLE OF GOVERNANCE

Theoritically, decentralisation in Indonesia has make local government autonomous to manage their city. In practice, many cities and municipalities still rely on the central government in order of development fund and human resources from the central government.

In the first step of decentralisation, around 2.1 million public servant were moved from central government to local government. The salaries of those public sevants became responsibilities of local government. (Urban Sector Development Unit Infrastructure Department East Asia and Pacific Region ,2003).

To make a frame in developing Denpasar as the autonom municipality, local authorities, together with all stakeholders, summarizes the vision and mission of Denpasar which are as follows:

· Vision : to build Denpasar as a Cultural City in a in harmonious and equilibrium in sustainability.

· Mission:

1. To build community character based on Balinese culture

2. to develop local genius

3. to realized good governance by law enforcement

4. to enhance society welfare

5. to accelerate economic growth by develop comunity based economy

Loans without collateral gives to small and medium size enterprises to increase it’s performance. When the performance of small and medium size enterpises increases, expected enhance the welfare and increase economic growth. Some innovation to attract investor and makes public private partnerships also generates by government. One of the succsess is Kesiman Kertalangu Cultural Villages. In these area government stimulates local people to make their own tourism object, where they can sell souvenirs, agriculture products and doing some sport activities such as jogging, beach volley, or spent their leisure time with families.

Transparency is an important issue in government services. All inhabitants can criticizes the government through mass media, government websites, or in other ways. All governement project’s bidding must published in mass media, so the process is transparent. In order to make a better places, some physical project conducted ie; inner city revitalisation, green river campaign, slums identifications, urban renewal.

To answer health problem, some community health center were built. At least there are 10 community health centers, 26 coomunity health sub centers, 54 clinics and 16 hospitals in 2006.

WHAT’S NEXT? CONCLUSIONS

The tourism business is very vulnerable in the issue of terorrism and security, while the security is still handled centralized. It is better to make diversification in economic field. Some rules and laws shows explicit directions in economis development. Local Development Program (PROPEDA-Program Pembangunan Daerah) creates chances to built economic strategy in local level. Since it is to risky to depends and specialised on tourism, agricultural and home industry become alternative to do diversification, because there’s not much natural resources in Denpasar.

Public transportation system should become priority in developing Denpasar, because it has many direct link to another field, trading, sustainability, eficiency, pollution, health, etc. it is important to have a good public transportation system in a tourism city like Denpasar. Having a fresh air, clean water, healthy environment, good basic services can enhance the quality of life of Denpasar’s inhabitant.

The government together with all stake holders including the citizens have to make a strong cooperation to realize the whole agenda for a better future.

List of References

Begg, I. (1999), Cities and Competitiveness, Urban Studies, vol. 36, 5-6, pp. 795-809

Berg, L. van den et al (1999), The Urban Life cycle and the role of aMarket Oriented Revitalisation Policy in Western Europe, in: Urban Change in The United States and Western Europe, A.A Summers, P.Cheshire and L.Senn (eds), The Urban Institute Press, Washington.

Berg, L. van den et al (2004), European Cities in The Knowledge Economy, Euricuur, Rotterdam.

Dijk, Meine Pieter van (1996) The Urban Informal Sector as a new Engine for Development, Theoritical Developments since 1972, Asien Afrika Lateinamerika, Vol.24, pp.177-192.

Dijk, Meine Pieter van (2006) Managing Cities in Developing Countries: The Theory and Practice of Urban Management, Edward Elgar Publishing, UK.

Mittlin, D and Satterthwaite, D (2001), Sustainable Development and Cities. In C Pugh (ed.), ustainability, the Environment and Urbanization, Earthscan, London, pp.23-61 (36 pp.)

Mittlin, D (2005), Understanding Chronic Poverty in Urban Areas, International Planning Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, Pp. 3 – 19

Stren, Richard (2006), An Urbanizing Africa, The Challenge of Informality, Toronto, University of Toronto

Urban Sector Development Unit Infrastructure Department East Asia and Pacific Region (2003) Kota-Kota Dalam Transisi : Tinjauan Sektor Perkotaan Pada Era Desentralisasi di Indonesia, East Asia Urban Working Paper SeriesThe World Bank

Wratten, W (1995), Coceptualising Urban Poverty, in Environment and Urbanisation, Vol.7, No 1, Pp 11- 36.

http://www.balitourismboard.org/

http://bps.denpasarkota.go.id/

Konsepsualisasi Kemiskinan Perkotaan (Urban Poverty)

Pendahuluan

Dalam wacana urban poverty, Ellen Wratten menyatakan terdapat tiga hal pokok yang harus menjadi perhatian dan isu bersama. Pertama, bagaimana dan oleh siapa kemiskinan perkotaan didefinisikan, serta bagaimana kita mengukur tingkat kemiskinan tersebut? kedua adalah Wratten mempertanyakan apa perbedaan kemiskinan perkotaan dengan kemiskinan secara umum, apa bedanya dengan kemiskinan di perdesaan misalnya? terakhir adalah bagiamana prinsip prinsip kemiskinan perkotaan dipahami, dari sisi wilayah serta dari sisi kebijakan penanggulangannya.

Dilihat dari sudut pandang geografis dan dari sisi ekonomi, antara tahun 1980an hingga 1990an, peningkatan kemiskinan terjadi secara drastis di wilayah perkotaan. Peningkatan kemiskinan di perkotaan terjadi akibat tingginya angka urbanisasi. Dalam dua dekade mendatang, populasi manusia yang hidup di wilayah perkotaan akan mengambil alih konsentrasi populasi yang selama ini tinggal di wilayah perdesaan untuk yang pertama kalinya. Dengan terjadinya urbanisasi yang demikian pesat, maka angka kemiskinan di perkotaanpun diperkirakan akan mingkat dengan cepat.

Mendefinisikan dan Mengukur Kemiskinan Perkotaan

Tidaklah mudah mendefinisikan kata ‘kemiskinan’. Siapa yang semestinya memberi definisi ‘kemiskinan?’ Di tengah sulitnya mendefinisikan kemiskinan, pendapat umum menyatakan bahwa kemiskinan adalah ketidakmampuan atau ketidakberdayaan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup dasar untuk mencapai kebahagiaan.  Meskipun pendapat tersebut sudah diterima secara luas, namun masih sangat sulit dan sangat subjektif sifatnya untuk menentukan kebutuhan dasar manusia dan bagaimana cara memenuhi kebutuhan tersebut. Apakah setelah kebutuhan dasar tersebut terpenuhi, maka dapat dikatakan seseorang telah bahagia? Akibat sulitnya pendefinisian tersebut, maka masing masing kelompok masyarakat diperkenankan untuk menentukan sendiri definisi kebutuhan hidupnya serta mengukur tingkat kemiskinannya.

Definisi Konvensional

Definisi berdasarkan pendapatan dan pengeluaran

beberapa ahli ekonomi menyatakan bahwa kesejahteraan seseorang dapat diukur melalui tingkat pendapatannya. Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari pendapatan dan pengeluaran, kerapkali dipakai sebagai tolok ukur untuk menentukan atau mendefinisikan kesejahteraan. Kurangnya pendapatan dikaitkan secara langsung sebagai penyebab kemiskinan dan penderitaan. Seseorang dikatakan misin jika pendapatan yang diperoleh tidak mampu memenuhi kebutuhan dasar yang dipersyaratkan untuk dapat hidup.  World Bank dalam laporan World Development Report menggunakan dua patokan pendapatan standar untuk mendefinisikan kemiskinan. Seseorang dengan pendapatan perkapita di bawah USD 370 per tahun dinyatakan miskin, dan yang pendapatannya di bawah USD 275 per tahun, dinyatakan sangat miskin.  dalam tahun 1994 1,39 miliar penduduk dunia dinyatakan tergolong sebagai penduduk miskin.  Di beberapa negara, data pendapatan dan pengeluaran digunakan untuk mengukur ‘orang miskin baru’, ‘dalam garis kemiskinan’ serta ’sangat miskin’, dimana kondisi ini sudah terjadi semenjak belum ditetapkannya kategori kemiskinan.

Definisi Kemiskinan Absolut dan Relatif

Jika kemiskinan akan didefinisikan secara absolut, maka kebutuhan dasar manusia harus pula didefinisikan secara absolut dan fixed, antara lain kebutuhan rumah tangga, kebutuhan pelayanan (services), antara lain air bersih, sanitasi, kesehatan,  pendidikan serta transportasi. Definisi absolut ini biasnya digunakan oleh world bank atau pemerintah dalam penyusunan program penanggulangan kemiskinan. Pendefinisian absolut ini mengabaikan faktor perubahan pendapatan serta perubahan kebutuhan mendasar yang umumnya makin meningkat.

Konsep atau definisi relatif, bersifat lebih fleksibel. Kebutuhan minimun dapat disesuaikan dengan kondisi faktual masyarakat dan standar hidup seseorang dapat pula disesuikan dengan faktor waktu misalnya sebagai bahan pertimbangan.  mendefinisikan kemiskinan secara relatif, Peter Townsend (1993) menyatakan, “the conditions of life-that is the diets, amenities, standards, and services-which allow them to play the roles, participate in the relationships and follow the customary behaviour which is expected of them by vitue of their membership of society” . Jika definisi ini dipakai, maka akan ditemui lebih banyak kemiskinan di New York, London atu Tokyo dibandingkan di New Delhi, Lusaka, atau bahkan di Denpasar, karena kemiskinan sangat bersifat relatif.  Akan tetapi jika menggunakan standar dari kemiskinan dari Bank Dunia, maka hanya beberapa gelandangan di kota London saja yang akan tergolong miskin, karena jaminan sosial bagi  pengangguran di London berada di atas ambang kemiskinan versi World Bank.

Definisi Kemiskinan Berdasarkan Indikator Sosial

Banyaknya faktor yang mempengaruhi sulitnya mendefinisikan kemiskinan dari sisi pendapatan dan pengeluaran, maka sosial indikator sering dipakai sebagai tolok ukur tambahan. Beberapa indikator sosial yang sering dipakai sebagai indikator atau tolok ukura keniskinan antara lain: umur hidup (life expectancy), kematian bayi, asupan gizi, proporsi pendapatan yang dipakai untuk membeli makanan, tingkat pendidikan, akses kesehatan dan ketersediaan serta kebersihan air minum.

Begitu banyaknya indikator yang dipakai sebagai tolok ukur untuk mendefinisikan kemiskinan, seperti di laporan World Bank, “world Development Report”, variabel yang berbeda mungkin menyatakan berbagai konflik kepentingan tentang pola-pola perebutan simpati atau kekuasaan. Dalam pelaksanaannya, pendapatan dan pengeluaran lebih sering dipakai sebagai patokan utama bagaimana kemiskinan didefinisikan.

Untuk memecahkan masalah pendefinisian kemiskinan, beberapa variabel utama dicoba unutk dijadikan sebagai variabel pokok. Human Development Index yang dikeluarkan oleh UNDP, menggunakan variabel pendapatan, angka buta huruf dan jangka waktu hidup (life expectancy) sebagai tolok ukur tunggal dalam penentuan standar hidup dengan faktor nilai antara skala 0 sampai 1. contoh contoh lain menyertakan Phisycal Quality of Life Index, the Food Security Index, dan Relative Welfare Index. Semua tolok ukur tersebut bukanlah sesuatu yang pasti. Lebih jauh, mereka mengukur kemiskinan dari sisi luar dan tidak dari sisi orang miskin itu sendiri.

Definisi Participatory

Kerapuhan (Vulnerability) dan Kepemilikan

Kerapuhan (vulnerability) tidaklah sama dengan kemiskinan. Kerapuhan didefinisikan sebagai ketidakberdayaan, rasa tidak aman, terbuka terhadap ancaman dan risiko, shock dan stress. kerapuhan berhubungan langsung dengan aset dasar seperti kesehatan, pendidikan, aset produktif seperti rumahdan perlengkapannya, akses ke pelayanan umum, simpanan uang, perhiasan. Sementara kemiskinan akibat kurangnya pendapatan bisa diatasi dengan cara meminjam, tetapi dengan memilki utang maka oang yang miskin akan semakin berada dalam kondisi yang rapuh. Titik kritis di mana orang miskin memiliki asa takut terlilit utang menjadikan permasalahan kemskinan dan kerapuhan semakin rumit.

Konsep Kemiskinan Perkotaan (Urban Poverty): Sebuah Perspektif Historis

Perdebatan tentang kemiskinan perkotaan berlangsung di medan yang berbeda antara dunia barat dan timur. secara sejarah, literature tentang pembangunan memfokuskan pembahasan pada ketidakseimbangan antara wilayah desa yang miskin dengan wilayah perkotaan yang lebih kaya, serta hubungan antara urbanisasi sebaran modal dan kemiskinan.

Bias masalah perkotaan menjadi tema pembicaraan pokok diantara agen pembangunan tahun 1970an dan 1980an. Di banyak negara di bunia ketiga, program pengentasan kemiskinan diarahkan untuk meningkatak kualitas hidup di perdesaan tertinggal. Pertengahan tahun 1980an penyesuaian dilakukan dengan memberikan subsidi bagi penduduk perkotaan dan meningkatkan harga harga untuk meningkatkan produksi di perdesaan.

Di kota-kota industri Eropa dan Amerika, mayoritas penduduk (termasuk juga golongan miskin) hidup di perkotaan semenjak awal abad kedua puluh. Konsekuensi dari kodisi ini adalah, kemiskinan perkotaan dan iset mengenai konsep kemiskinan perkotaan telah pula berlangsung sejak awal abad kedua puluh tersebut. Akibat besarnya peran image  perkotaan, definisi kemiskinan perkotaan, sering dianggap tidak sama dengan definisi kemiskinan secara umum.

Are Cities More Important Than Countries?

Serangkaian dengan anniversary Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies (IHS) ROtterdam yang ke 50, bekerjasama dengan AIR (Rotterdam centre for Architecture) dan International Architecture Biennale Rotterdam (IABR), IHS menyelenggarakan acara Urban Meetings dengan tema pokok Urban Management Meets Urban Design.

Acara ini diselenggarakan dengan tujuan untuk mengeksplorasi seluruh outlines yang terkait dengan permasalahan urban yang tertuang dalam Urban Agenda for the 21st Century. Para pembicara dalam forum ini adalah urban profesional terkenal dari seluruh dunia dan akan melakukan sharing pengalaman dan pandangan terhadap permasalahan perkotaan dan urban dengan pengambil kebijakan di Kota Rotterdam, arsitek, dan urban manager. Urban Meetings kali ini mengkaitkan isu isu global dengan permasalahan lokal dan mencoba menjalin keterkaitan antara urban manager dan developer di satu sisi dengan urban designer dan arsitek di sisi yang lain.

Setidaknya terdapat enam isu sentral yag dibahas dalam agenda Urban Meetings diantaranya:

1. Are Cities More Important than Countries? menampilkan Jan Pronk (Former Minister and Special Representative of the United Nations)sebagai pembicara utama. Isu yang dibahas adalah menginvestigasi motto urban Meetings kali ini yaitu: Cities Are More Important than Countries. Bagaimana kota menentukan hidup jutaan manusia yang beraktivitas di dalamnya?

2. Sustainable Cities menampilkan Jaime Lerner (Architect and Former Mayor of Curitiba (Brazil)) menerangkan strategi yang diterapkannya dalam membangun Kota Curitiba. Dengan membangun jaringan antara Social Programme, Functional Programme, Environmental Programme, Lerner menata, ketika masih menjadi Mayor, untuk membangun Curitiba menjadi satu dari kota paling progressive dalam bidang sustainability. Sebagai pembicara tambahan dalam sesi ini ditampilkan pula Arjan Dikmans yang merupakan managing director Rotterdam Climate Initiative dan Floris Alkemade dari kantor arsitek Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA)

3. Leading Cities dengan pembicara Anthony Williams yang merupakan former mayor Kota Washington D.C. yang akan menjelasakan bagaimana dia memanage dan menurunkan dampak negative pembangunan urban di wilayahnya, dimana Urban politics memegang peranan yang sangat kuat dalam membentuk karakter kota dan mempengaruhi warga kotanya. Dia meningkatkan posisi finansial Washington dan menciptakan investasi positif dan membangun iklim, meningkatkan kepedulian sosial perkotaan dengan membuat setiap orang memiliki akses terhadap kesehatan dan membangun proyek proyek yang inovative. Dalam presentasi dengan tema leading cities ini, dihadirkan pula Ivo Opstelten (Mayor of Rotterdam City) dan Kees Christiaanse (Curator of the 4th International Architecture Bienalle Rotterdam, partner in KCAP dan member London Design Advisory Board).

4. Safe Cities. Bagaimana kita menciptakan rasa aman dalam kota yang berkembang dengan cepat, hari ini dan di masa yang akan datang? Lydia Fitchko (Director of Social Policy, Analysis and Research in the Social Development Division of the City of Toronto)menjelaskan, bagaimana sebuah kota melakukan pendekatan terhadap issue keamanan. Keamanan komunitas dituntut lebih dari sekedar ketiadaan kekerasan di dalam kota. Keamanan komunitas adalah hak sosial dan keberlangsungan hidup komunitas. Keamanan ditangani dalam skala yang beragam, dari lngkungan sekitar rumah hingga distrik, dan menyentuh pula level metropolitan.

5. Inclusive Cities. Apakah partisipasi warga dan pengguna ruang kota berkontribusi terhadap pembangunan spatial kota? contoh contoh dari seluruh dunia menunjukkan bahwa partisipasi dapat meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan perkotaan, bahkan dalam kelmpok warga yang lemah sekalipun. Francisco Maria Orsini (engineer) menjelaskan bahwa setelah proyek transportasi publik, yang sama sekali baru, diterapkan, situasi warga kota yang tinggal di perumahan informal berubah dengan drastis. warga yang selama ini terpinggirkan dari kehidupan kota, kali ini merasa menjadi bagian dari kota Medellin (Kolombia).

6. My City. Buku De Lat Steeds Hoger (Aiming Higher) menampilkan anak anak muda Turki dan Marroko mengidentifikasi dan membandingkan kota tempat mereka tinggal dengan Belanda sebagai sebuah negara. Mereka memposisikan diri sebagai orang Turki, Maroko, Antilleans dan bahkan Rotterdam. Han Entzinger menyimpulkan aturan sebuah kota dalam hal identitas kultural. Hadir pula dalam sesi ini Nadia Jellouli-Guachati dari kantor XS2N Architects.

dalam pemaparannya yang sangat impresive, Jan Pronk menerangkan bagaimana pentingnya membangun perekonomian perkotaan, karena jka kita memiliki ekonomi perkotaan yang kuat, maka keadaan negarapun akan lebih stabil. Motto Urban Meetings: Cities are More Important than Countries,mendapat banyak kritik dari peserta yang juga hadir dari seluruh dunia. Pandangan yang menyatakan bahwa kemakmuran wilayah perkotaan akan membantu atau memberi pengaruh yang kuat bagi kemakmuran wilayah perdesaan juga mendapat kritikan dan dukungan yang nyaris seimbang. Tidak mudah untuk memberi penilaian, mana yang lebih baik dan lebih benar. tentu semua harus dikembalikan dalam konteks pemikiran masing-masing. satu hal yang perlu dicatat adalah, baik kota maupun negara adalah milik warganya. Apapun yang hendak dilakukan atau dikembangkan di kota atau negara tersebut, hendaknya mempertimbangkan kesejahteraan warganya.

NETHERLANDS

Hari ini 05 Oktober 2008, jumbo jet Malaysian Airlines yang saya tumpang mendarat di Schipol International airport. Yup inilah untuk pertama kalinya saya meninggalkan Indonesia dan berada di negeri orang. kesan pertama begitu memasuki bandara ini langsung menunjukan kepada saya betapa teratur dan rapinya management bandara. tidak ada antrean di depan imigrasi, dan petugas melayani dengan sigap.

Di arrival hall saya sudah ditunggu oleh Ms. Lindy, penjemput saya dari IHS, kami naik kereta bersama satu rang rekan dari Tangerang menuju kota Rotterdam. Saya memang dalam penugasan untuk belajr S2 di negri Ratu Beatrix ini. Kereta di Belanda kondisinya cukup nyaman dan sangat bersih. Jadwal kereta juga sudah terpampang, dan konon jarang sekali ada kejadian kereta datang terlambat. Usai membeli 1 tiket one way ke Rotterdam, kami menunggu tak sampai 5 menit kereta sudah datang. Perjalanan ke Rotterdam dari Schipol lebih kurang memakan waktu 30 menit.

Tiba di Centraal Station Rotterdam, segera terlihat betapa saya ada di negara yang sangat maju. Transportasinya sangat teratur, mobil-mobil nyaris semuanya keluaran terbaru, gedung-gedung yang terawat, dan of course, oang-orangnya yang berkejaran dengan waktu.

Hari pertaa di Rotterdam saya habskan untuk mencoba jalan-jalan di sekitar apartement tempat tnggal saya bersama Deny, satu teman dari Indonesia dan Bali pula. Kota Rotterdam memiliki beberapa museum, yang sayangnya belum bisa saya masuki karena belum punya pass untuk masuk museum. Kami juga sempat jalan ke erasmus bridge, centraal plaza, dan melihat-lihat tempat makan dengan sajian khas Indonesia. Jangan salah di sini juga ada menu lumpia Semarang. tapi harganya membuat geleng kepala.

Saya akan menempuh S2 disini selama setahun dan saya berharap saya mampu berkompromi dengan keadaan disini untuk menjad bagian darinya.

ok see you